Republic of Turkey
CAPITAL: AnkaraFLAG: The national flag consists of a white crescent (open toward the fly) and a white star on a red field.
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ANTHEM: Istiklâl Marşi (March of Independence).
MONETARY UNIT: The new Turkish lira (ytl) was introduced in 2005. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25 and 50 Kurus, and 1 lira. ytl1 = $0.73529 (or $1 = tl1.36) as of 2005.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.
HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; National Sovereignty and Children's Day, 23 April; Spring Day, 1 May; Youth and Sports Day, 19 May; Victory Day, 30 August; Independence Day (Anniversary of the Republic), 29 October. Movable religious holidays include Şeker Bayrami (three days) and Kurban Bayrami (four days).
TIME: 3 pm = noon GMT.
LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
The Republic of Turkey consists of Asia Minor, or Anatolia (Anadolu); the small area of eastern Thrace(Trakya), or Turkey in Europe; and a few offshore islands in the Aegean Sea, with a total area of 780,580 sq km (301,384 sq mi), extending about 1,600 km (994 mi) se–nw and 650 km (404 mi) ne–sw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Turkey is slightly larger than the state of Texas. Of the overall area, 97% is in Asia, and 3% in Europe. Turkey lies athwart the important Black Sea straits system—the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus. It is bordered on the n by the Black Sea, on the ne by Georgia and Armenia, on the e by Iran, on the se by Iraq, on the s by Syria and the Mediterranean Sea, on the w by the Aegean Sea, and on the nw by Greece and Bulgaria, with a total land boundary of 2,648 km (1,645 mi) and a coastline of 7,200 km (4,474 mi). Turkey's capital city, Ankara, is located in the northwest central part of the country.
TOPOGRAPHY
Other than the low, rolling hills of Turkish Thrace, the fertile river valleys that open to the Aegean Sea, the warm plains of Antalya and Adana on the Mediterranean, and the narrow littoral along the Black Sea, the country is wrinkled by rugged mountain ranges that surround and intersect the high, semiarid Anatolian plateau. Average elevations range from 600 m (2,000 ft) above sea level in the west to over 1,800 m (6,000 ft) amid the wild eastern high-lands. The highest point is Mount Ararat (Büyük Agri Dagi, 5,166 m/16,949 ft), which rises just within Turkey at the intersection of the Turkish, Armenian, and Iranian frontiers. There are over 100 peaks with elevations of 3,000 m (10,000 ft) or more.
Other than the Tigris and Euphrates, which have their sources in eastern Anatolia, rivers are relatively small. Because the watersheds of these streams are semibarren slopes, the seasonal variations in flow are very great. The largest lake is Lake Van (3,675 sq km/1,419 sq mi); the other major lake is Lake Tuz, whose water has a salinity level so high that it serves as a commercial source of salt. Turkey's 7,200 km (5,474 mi) of coastline provide few good natural harbors.
Most of Turkey lies within an earthquake zone, and recurrent tremors are recorded. On 29–30 March 1970, more than 1,000 earthquakes were felt in the Gediz region of western Turkey, killing 1,086 persons. The most destructive earthquake in the country was that of 29 December 1939—near Erzincan—which killed 30,000 persons. On 17 August 1999, a 7.6 magnitude quake near Izmit was followed two days later by two aftershocks of about 4.8 and 5.0 in magnitude. At least 17,118 people died in the quake and nearly 50,000 injured were injured. A 6.1 magnitude earthquake on 1 May 2003 in eastern Turkey left 150 people dead and over 1,000 injured.
Other than the Tigris and Euphrates, which have their sources in eastern Anatolia, rivers are relatively small. Because the watersheds of these streams are semibarren slopes, the seasonal variations in flow are very great. The largest lake is Lake Van (3,675 sq km/1,419 sq mi); the other major lake is Lake Tuz, whose water has a salinity level so high that it serves as a commercial source of salt. Turkey's 7,200 km (5,474 mi) of coastline provide few good natural harbors.
Most of Turkey lies within an earthquake zone, and recurrent tremors are recorded. On 29–30 March 1970, more than 1,000 earthquakes were felt in the Gediz region of western Turkey, killing 1,086 persons. The most destructive earthquake in the country was that of 29 December 1939—near Erzincan—which killed 30,000 persons. On 17 August 1999, a 7.6 magnitude quake near Izmit was followed two days later by two aftershocks of about 4.8 and 5.0 in magnitude. At least 17,118 people died in the quake and nearly 50,000 injured were injured. A 6.1 magnitude earthquake on 1 May 2003 in eastern Turkey left 150 people dead and over 1,000 injured.
CLIMATE
Turkey's southern coast enjoys a Mediterranean climate, and the Aegean coastal climate as far north as İzmir is much the same. The mean temperature range in these regions is 17–20°c (63–68°f), and the annual rainfall ranges from 58 to 130 cm (23 to 51 in). The Black Sea coast is relatively mild (14 to 16°c/57 to 60°f) and very moist, with 71 to 249 cm (28 to 87 in) of rainfall. The central Anatolian plateau is noted for its hot, dry summers and cold winters: the average annual temperature is 8–12°c (46–54°f), and annual precipitation is 30–75 cm (12–30 in). With the exception of some warmer pockets in the valleys, the eastern third of Turkey is colder (4–9°c/39–48°f), and rainfall averages 41–51 cm (16–20 in). The little precipitation there is on the central plateau tends to be concentrated during the late fall and winter months.FLORA AND FAUNA
A wide variation of flora is found, from semitropical to temperate, and desert to alpine. In the mountains of southern, southwestern, and northern Turkey there are extensive coniferous stands of commercial importance and some deciduous forest. Licorice, valonia oaks, and wild olive trees grow in the southwest. Principal varieties of wild animals are the fallow deer, red deer, roe deer, eastern mouflon, wild boar, hare, Turkish leopard, brown bear, red fox, gazelle, beech marten, pine marten, wildcat, lynx, otter, and badger. There is a large variety of birds, including the snow partridge, quail, great bustard, little bustard, widgeon, woodcock, snipe, and a variety of geese, ducks, pigeons, and rails. About 30 species of snakes are indigenous. Bees and silkworms are grown commercially.As of 2002, there were at least 116 species of mammals, 278 species of birds, and over 8,650 species of plants throughout the country.
ENVIRONMENT
Environmental responsibilities are vested in the Under Secretariat for Environment and in the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Among Turkey's principal environmental problems is air pollution in Ankara and other cities. The smog in Ankara grew worse after 1979, when the government banned oil heating systems in new buildings in order to reduce costly oil imports; the resultant increased burning of Turkish lignite, which is high in sulfur content, greatly increased the levels of sulfur dioxide and dust in the air. In 1983, the government reversed itself and banned the conversion of heating systems to coal. At the same time, it introduced an antipollution program designed to reduce air pollution levels by more than 50% within a year. In addition to heating restrictions, the plan called for strict traffic controls, the closing of the worst industrial polluters, a prohibition on the import of high-sulfur fuel oil, special emergency hospital wards for smog victims, and the building of green areas and parks in and around cities. In 1992, Turkey had the world's highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emission, which totaled 145.5 million metric tons, a per capita level of 2.49 metric tons. In 1996, the total rose to 178.3 million metric tons. In 2000, the total of carbon dioxide emissions was at 221.6 million metric tons.A $220-million project to clean up the polluted water in the Golden Horn, an inlet of the Bosporus forming a harbor in Istanbul, was implemented in the 1980s. The nation's rivers are polluted with industrial chemicals. Among them, mercury has created a serious threat to the nation's water supply. Soil erosion affects both coastal and internal areas. The combination of water and wind eliminates about 500 metric tons of soil each year.
According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 15 types of mammals, 14 species of birds, 12 types of reptiles, 5 species of amphibians, 30 species of fish, 13 species of invertebrates, and 3 species of plants. Threatened species include the Anatolian leopard, Mediterranean monk seal, bald ibis, slender-billed curlew, Atlantic sturgeon, and hawksbill and green sea turtles. Wild goats are among the vulnerable species.
POPULATION
The population of Turkey in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 72,907,000, which placed it at number 17 in population among the 193 nations of the world. Turkey is the most populous country in the Middle East. In 2005, approximately 6% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 29% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.4%; the fertility rate has declined from 3.1 births per woman in 1990 to 2.7 births per woman in 2005; however, the government sought to reduce population growth further. The projected population for the year 2025 was 90,211,000. The population density was 94 per sq km (244 per sq mi).The UN estimated that 65% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.93%. The capital city, Ankara, had a population of 3,428,000 in that year. Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), the largest city, had a 2005 metropolitan population of 9,760,000. The largest metropolitan areas after Istanbul were İzmir (formerly Smyrna), 2,500,000; Bursa, 1,413,000; Adana, 1,248,000; and Gaziantep, 1,004,000.
MIGRATION
Much Turkish emigration has consisted of workers under contract for employment in European Community countries. Germany alone had 1,779,600 Turks at the end of 1991. There are also large numbers of Turks in prosperous Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia, the Gulf states, and Libya. In 1994, there were 14,000 Turkish Kurds in northern Iraq. The military conflict in southeastern Turkey has internally displaced hundreds of thousands of persons; however, this problem has not been officially recognized by Turkey.
After the 1991 Gulf War, 500,000 Iraqi Kurds fled to Turkey. Most of these refugees have since repatriated or resettled in third countries. In 1992, 20,000 Bosnians came to Turkey, though all have left except for 4,000 as of March 1997. In 1999, nearly 18,000 Kosovar refugees sought asylum in Turkey, including 8,000 people evacuated from Macedonia; nearly all were voluntarily repatriated. Non-European refugees are granted only temporary protection in Turkey, so nearly all must be resettled. In 2004, there were 3,033 refugees and 3,929 asylum seekers from Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, and Somalia in Turkey, and an additional 16 returned refugees. In 2004 Turks sought asylum in 18 countries in Europe and in the United Kingdom.
The net migration rate was zero in 1999 and in 2005. Worker remittances in 2003 were $2.3 billion.
ETHNIC GROUPS
The constitution provides a single designated of nationality for all Turks; however, ethnic identification among the citizens themselves is strong. About 80% of the population is Turkish. The major ethnic minority (by mother tongue), the Kurds, is estimated at 20%. Arabs, Turkmen, Circassians, Greeks, and others do account for a small percentage of the population. The number of Roma within the country may be significant; however, many are unwilling to disclose their ethnic identity since discrimination against Roma has been common.Hundreds of thousands of Armenians were either killed or forced to flee during and immediately following World War I; bitterness between Armenians and Turks continues to this day, and during the late 1970s and early 1980s, Armenian terrorists took the lives of more than two dozen Turkish diplomats. The Greek component in Turkey was reduced as a result of the 1919–22 hostilities with Greece, the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne (which provided for an exchange of population with Greece), and the post–World War II Cyprus controversy.
The Kurds, some of whom were forcibly dispersed after an uprising in 1935, still tend to be concentrated in the southeastern provinces. The Arabs live in the south along the Syrian and Iraqi frontiers, and the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews live in Istanbul and, to a lesser extent, in İzmir. Separatist Kurdish groups are outlawed, and there is a heavy military presence in the nine provinces where a state of emergency has been in effect since 1987.
LANGUAGES
Turkish, which belongs to the Ural-Altaic group, is the official language. In addition to the Roman alphabet, modern Turkish uses the letters ç, ĝ, i (undotted), ö, ş, and ü, but no q, w, or x. With only minor exceptions, words are spelled phonetically. The language is agglutinative. A 1928 language reform substituted the Roman alphabet for the Arabic script, which had been used by the Turks since their conversion to Islam. During the 1930s there was a state-sponsored effort to rid the language of Arabic and Persian words and grammatical constructions. Turkish grammatical rules are now applied for all words, regardless of origin, though many Persian and Arabic expressions persist. Traditionally, there was a great difference between vernacular Turkish and written Ottoman Turkish, the latter being heavily influenced by Arabic and Persian and almost unintelligible to the mass of Turks. This difference has been almost obliterated, though some regional differences in dialect, particularly in the villages, still make effective communication difficult.Kurdish and Arabic are also spoken. Kurdish is a language of the Iranian group and is written in Arabic script in Turkey. Two of the three major dialects are spoken in Turkey. Armenian and Greek are also spoken.
RELIGIONS
About 99% of the population is officially Muslim; however, the number of practicing Muslims may be lower. The vast majority of Turkish Muslims are Sunni, but there is a substantial Shia minority. About 5–12 million Muslims are believed to be Alevis, incorporating traditions of Sunni and Shia practices as well as other indigenous beliefs of Anatolia. A small number of people in western Anatolia practice a blend of Islam and shamanism. The Alevis and Tahtacilar are regarded as non-Muslim sects by the government. The only religious minorities official recognized by the government are Greek Orthodox Christians, Armenian Orthodox Christians, and Jews. The Greek Orthodox patriarch at Istanbul is considered first among equals of the seven patriarchs in the Eastern Orthodox churches. The Greek Orthodox Church has less than 3,000 members. The Armenian Orthodox church has about 65,000 members. Turkey was a haven for Jewish refugees from Spain and Portugal in the late 15th and 16th centuries, and Jews have lived there in relative peace until recent years. There are about 25,000 Jews in the country. Other unofficial religious groups include about 10,000 Baha'is, 15,000 Syrian Orthodox Christians, 5,000 Yezidi, 3,000 Protestants, and smaller numbers of Chaldean and Nestorian Christians, Roman Catholics, and Maronite Christians.There is no official state religion and the constitution establishes the nation as a secular state; however, the state maintains urban mosques and other Muslim religious properties, and licenses Muslim religious leaders. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is generally discouraged. Laws against the use of religion for political purposes are rigorously enforced.
TRANSPORTATION
Turkey's size and difficult terrain, together with limited economic resources, have proved great obstacles to the construction of transportation facilities. When the republic was founded in 1923 there were about 4,000 km (2,500 mi) of railway track and 7,400 km (4,600 mi) of motor roads in Anatolia and Thrace, all in disrepair. By 2004, a total of 8,697 km (5,409 mi) of track (all of it standard gauge) connected most of the important points in the country with Ankara, Istanbul, and the Black Sea and Mediterranean ports. The railways are owned and operated by the Turkish State Railways, a public corporation. A total of 2,122 km (1,318 mi) are electrified.Animal transportation in most of the country has gradually given way to trucks and buses that use roads provided by extensive construction programs since World War II. In October 1973, the Bosporus Bridge in Istanbul was opened, facilitating the crossing of the Straits of the Bosporus by motorists. This six-lane steel suspension bridge had a main span of 1,074 m (3,524 ft). As of 2002, there were 354,421 km (220,450 mi) of roadways, of which 147,404 km (91,685 mi) were paved, including 1,851 km (1,151 mi) of expressways. As of 2003, there were 4,700,343 passenger cars and 1,747,385 commercial vehicles registered for use.
The Turkish merchant fleet in 2005 consisted of 526 vessels of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 4,666,895 GRT. The leading ports were Mersin (Icel), Istanbul, İzmir, Iskenderun, and Izmit (Kocaeli). As of 2003, Turkey had 1,200 km (746 mi) of navigable inland waterways.
Turkey had an estimated 119 airports in 2004. As of 2005 a total of 88 had paved runways, and there were also 16 heliports. Three international airports—Atatürk (Istanbul), Adnan Menderes (İzmir), and Esenboga (Ankara)—are served by some 20 international air carriers. A new international passenger terminal in Istanbul is one of the largest in Europe able to handle 30 simultaneous gate arrivals and departures. The new Sabiha Gokcen International Airport on Istanbul's Asian side can handle 3.5 million passengers with a potential capacity for 10 million. Other international airports include Antalya, Dalaman, and Adnan Menderes at İzmir. With minor exceptions, domestic air transportation is the monopoly of the semipublic Turkish Airways Corp. (Türk Hava Yollari), which connects most major centers within the country on a regular schedule and operates some international flights. In 2003, scheduled airlines freight shipments totaled 379 million freight ton-km. In that same year, about 10.701 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.
HISTORY
In ancient times, Turkey was known as Asia Minor or Anatolia. Among the many inhabitants were the Hittites (c.1800–c.1200 bc), the first people to use iron; the Greeks, who, according to legend, destroyed Troy (or Ilium) about 1200 bc and who colonized the Aegean coast from about 1000 bc on; the Phrygians (c.1200–c.600 bc); the Lydians (c.700–546 bc), the first people to mint coins; the Persians (546–333 bc); and the Romans, beginning in the 2d century bc. Roman Emperor Constantine I (the Great) changed the name of the city of Byzantium to Constantinople (now Istanbul) and made it his capital in ad 330; a division between the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, with their respective capitals at Rome and Constantinople, became official in 395. Constantinople, seat of the Byzantine Empire, became the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which officially separated from Roman Catholicism in 1054, when the pope and the patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other.The Turks are a Ural-Altaic people who emerged from the plains between the Ural Mountains in Europe and the Altay Mountains in Asia. The forerunners of the inhabitants of present-day Turkey, known as the Seljuk Turks (named after the Turkish conqueror Seljuk, fl.10th century), defeated the Byzantines in the battle of Malazgirt (1071) and established themselves in Anatolia. They attained a highly developed Muslim culture in their great capital at Konya, in central Turkey. The Turkish conquest of Syria, including Palestine, led to the Crusades (1096–1270), a series of intermittent and inconclusive wars. Various Latin (Roman Catholic) and Greek (Eastern Orthodox) states were formed in parts of the Turkish Empire, but none lasted. The sack of the Christian city of Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204, followed by the establishment of the Latin Empire there (1204–61), shocked Europe and tended to discredit the Crusading movement.
Seljuk power was shattered when the Mongols, another Ural-Altaic people, swept across Asia Minor in 1243. As the Mongols withdrew, Turkish power revived and expanded under the Ottoman Turks, a group of frontier warriors whose first chief was Osman I (called Ottoman in the West, r.1300?–26). In 1453, the Ottomans under Mehmet II (the Conqueror) occupied Constantinople and made it their capital. In 1516, they conquered Syria; in 1517, Egypt. In 1529, they were at the gates of Vienna, at which point the European expansion of Turkish power was stopped. The Turkish fleet was decisively defeated in a battle near Lepanto (now Navpaktos) in Greece in 1571. At its peak, generally identified with the reign of Sultan Süleyman I (the Magnificent, r.1520–66), the Ottoman Empire encompassed an estimated 28 million inhabitants of Asia Minor, much of the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa as far west as modern Algeria, the islands of the eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Caucasus, and the Crimea. During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, as a result of the rise of nationalism and encroachment by the European powers, it gradually shrank in size, the independence of the remainder being maintained only by shrewd balance-of-power diplomacy.
The process of modernization began with the Imperial Rescript of 1839, promulgated by Sultan Abdul Mejid (r.1839–61), and by a body of reforms known as the Tanzimat, which to some extent curbed the absolute powers of the sultan-caliph. (The Turkish sultans had added the title "caliph" following the conquest of Egypt in 1517.) The Illustrious Rescript of 1856 was largely dictated by Britain, France, and Austria as part of the negotiations leading to the settlement of the Crimean War (1853–56), a clash between the Russian and Ottoman Empires; it ensured equal rights for non-Muslims, provided for prison reform and the codification of Turkish law, and opened Turkey to European skills and capital. A constitution was introduced in 1876 by Sultan Abdul Hamid II (r.1876–1909) but was suspended in the following year. Thereafter, an absolute monarchy prevailed until the Young Turk revolution of 1908, at which time the constitution of 1876 was reinstated. In 1913, leaders of the Committee for Union and Progress (the organizational vehicle of the Young Turks) took effective control of the government under Sultan Mehmet V (r.1909–18). The principal leaders were Talat and Enver Pasha, who, at the outbreak of World War I, threw what little remained of Ottoman strength behind the Central Powers, which had sided with Turkey in its fruitless attempt to retain its last major European possessions in the Balkan Wars of 1912–13. Although the Turks were unable to make any headway against British forces defending the Suez Canal, they did offer a heroic defense at Gallipoli (the Gelibolu Peninsula) and the Dardanelles, in a prolonged battle between Turkish and British-French forces that lasted from February 1915 to January 1916 and took the lives of about 100,000 soldiers on each side. In 1917, however, Turkish resistance collapsed, and the British pushed Turkey out of Syria, Palestine, Iraq, and Arabia. An armistice was concluded on 30 October 1918, and Enver Pasha and his colleagues fled the country. Before and during the war, Armenians sought to establish their independence and were brutally repressed by the Turks. Over a million people are said to have died being driven from their homes; many survived in exile.
On the basis of a series of earlier Allied agreements, the Ottoman Empire was to be stripped of all non-Turkish areas, and much of what remained—Asia Minor—was to be divided among the United Kingdom, France, Greece, and Italy. A substantial portion was actually occupied. In 1919, with Allied assistance, the Greeks invaded Anatolia through İzmir, but a Turkish nationalist resistance movement under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later called Atatürk), who had commanded a division at Gallipoli, finally defeated them in 1922. The sultan, being virtually captive in Istanbul, was disgraced in Turkish eyes by his identification with Allied policy. After much maneuvering, a rival nationalist government under Mustafa Kemal was established in Ankara and gained national and international recognition. On 1 November 1922, the sultanate was abolished by Mustafa Kemal's provisional government. The following year, the Ankara government negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne with the Allies, which recognized Turkish sovereignty over Asia Minor and a small area in Thrace. There was a massive exchange of Greek and Turkish populations. On 29 October 1923, a republic was proclaimed, with Ankara as its capital, and on 3 March 1924, the caliphate was abolished and all members of the dynasty banished.
During the next few years, a series of social, legal, and political reforms were accomplished that, taken collectively, became known as the Atatürk Reforms. They included the substitution of secular law for religious law, the writing of a republican constitution based on popular sovereignty, suppression of religious education in Turkish schools, introduction of a Roman alphabet to replace the Arabic script, and the legal upgrading of the position of women. With minor exceptions, political power resided in a single party, the Republican People's Party, and to a very substantial extent in Mustafa Kemal personally until his death in 1938. His chief of staff, Ismet Inönü (Pasha), became president and established a two-party system of government with the formation of the opposition Democrat Party (DP) in 1946.
Although pro-Allied, Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II, but early in 1945 it declared war on the Axis and became a charter member of the UN. In 1947, the Truman Doctrine pledged US support to Turkey in the face of mounting Soviet pressure. This move was followed by large-scale military and economic assistance from the United States. Turkey thus became firmly committed to the Western alliances—NATO and the Central Treaty Organization, or CENTO (Baghdād Pact).
The DP came to power in 1950. Under Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, the government stressed rapid industrialization and economic expansion at the cost of individual liberties. Restrictive press laws were passed in 1954 and 1956, and by 1960 the Menderes government had curtailed judicial independence, university autonomy, and the rights of opposition parties. On 27 May 1960, after student demonstrations (joined by War College cadets and some army officers) were harshly suppressed, Prime Minister Menderes, President Celâl Bayar, and other government leaders were arrested by a newly formed Committee of National Unity. Gen. Cemal Gürsel became acting president and prime minister. Menderes was found guilty of violating the constitution and was hanged in 1961. A new constitution was popularly ratified in 1961, and elections were held in October. Gen. Gürsel was elected president by the New Grand National Assembly, and Inönü became prime minister of a coalition government.
The opposition Justice Party (JP) won 52.3% of the vote in the 1965 elections and formed a new government under Süleyman Demirel. Four years later, the JP was returned to power, and Prime Minister Demirel began a new four-year term. But Turkey's four top military commanders forced the resignation of Demirel's government in 1971 and called for a "strong and credible government" that would restore economic and political stability and suppress student disorders, which had steadily grown more frequent and more violent since 1968. Martial law had been imposed from June to September 1970, and a new "above party" government under Nihat Erim reimposed martial law in 11 provinces (including Ankara and Istanbul) from 1971 to 1973.
Political stability proved no easier to achieve: a succession of weak coalition governments, headed alternately by Demirel and Republican leader Bülent Ecevit, held office between 1973 and 1980. Ecevit's government was in power during the Greco-Turkish war on Cyprus in July–August 1974. Relations with Greece, strained by a dispute over mineral rights on the Aegean continental shelf, reached the breaking point on 15 July, when Cypriot President Makarios was overthrown in a Greek-led military coup. Fearing the island would be united with Greece, Turkish forces invaded on 20 July. A UN cease-fire came into effect two days later, but after peace talks at Geneva broke down, Turkish troops consolidated their hold over the northern third of the island by 16 August. As the result of this action, the United States embargoed shipments of arms to Turkey until 1978; as of 1994, an estimated 25,000 or more Turkish troops remained on Cyprus to support the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus which only Turkey recognizes. In 1997, Turkish and Greek representatives met with a UN mediator in an attempt to resolve the issue. No results were reported.
During the late 1970s, escalating acts of violence by political groups of the extreme left and right, coupled with economic decline, threatened the stability of Turkey's fragile democracy. By April 1980, 47,000 people had been arrested, and martial law had spread to 20 of Turkey's 67 provinces; at midyear, more than 5,000 persons had been killed (including former prime minister Nihat Erim), and the factional strife was claiming an average of 20 victims each day. With the legislature deadlocked, the military intervened in the political process for the third time in 20 years. A five-man military National Security Council (NSC), headed by Gen. Kenan Evren, took power in a bloodless coup on 12 September 1980. The NSC suspended the 1961 constitution, banned all political parties and activities, and arrested thousands of suspected terrorists. With the entire country under martial law, factional violence was drastically reduced. By April 1982, 40,000 alleged "political extremists" had been arrested; 23,000 had been tried and convicted in martial law courts, some 6,000 of them for "ideological offenses." Under an NSC edict forbidding Turkey's former political leaders from speaking out on political matters, former prime minister Ecevit was twice arrested and imprisoned during 1981–82. In protest against the treatment of Ecevit, the EEC froze payment of $650 million in loans and grants previously pledged to Turkey.
In a national referendum on 7 November 1982, Turkish voters overwhelmingly approved a new constitution (prepared by a constituent assembly chosen by the NSC) under which Gen. Evren became president of the republic for a seven-year term; campaigning against ratification had been illegal under martial law. Parliamentary elections were held in November 1983, although martial law remained in effect. Following the elections, Turgut Özal, leader of the victorious Motherland Party, was installed as prime minister. Martial law was lifted in most provinces over the next two years, but emergency rule remained in effect; legislation was passed to broaden police powers, freedom of expression remained limited, and trials of alleged extremists continued. Human-rights groups complained of torture, suspicious deaths, overcrowding, and substandard conditions in Turkish jails; the government denied any improprieties. Özal's Motherland Party retained its parliamentary majority in November 1987 elections, and he was reelected for a second five-year term. In 1989, Özal was elected president. His Motherland Party continued in power but with declining popularity as shown in 1989 municipal elections. Özal's ambition was to tie Turkey closely to Europe but, despite improvements in Turkey's human rights record, its application for full membership in the European Union was deferred indefinitely. Özal also sought to give Turkey a leading role with the Turkic republics of former Soviet Central Asia. He continued Turkey's long-standing policy of quiet contacts with Israel while seeking better ties with the Arab states. During the Gulf War, he joined the embargo against Iraq, closed Iraq's oil pipelines, provided facilities for allied air raids and later supported protective measures for Iraqi Kurds. In compensation, Turkey received increased aid worth $300 million.
In October 1991 elections, the Motherland Party lost its parliamentary majority to the True Path and Social Democratic Party in coalition. True Path leader Demirel was named prime minister. He succeeded to the presidency in May 1993 following the death of Özal. Tansu Ciller, True Path chairperson, became Turkey's first female prime minister in July. In 1994, Ciller faced three major tasks: dealing with the problems of high inflation (about 70%) and unemployment as she continued Özal's free market policies of export-led growth (7–8%), reducing government regulations and privatization; pacifying the rebellious Kurdish areas of eastern Turkey where large numbers of troops have been tied down in a conflict that has taken thousands of lives and millions in treasure; and responding to the rising challenge to Turkey's secular nationalism from politically militant Islamic groups.
These problems continued, and in some cases escalated, and the Ciller government also faced scandals and a weakened resolve due to its fragile coalition majority.
Problems with Kurdish separatists, long-standing disagreements with Greece, and an unstable political environment plagued Turkey throughout the 1990s.
The battle between the Turkish government and members of the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) that began in 1984 continued into 1994–95. The PKK sought the establishment of a separate Kurdish state. In fighting from 1984 until February 1995, more than 14,000 people had died. The battle spilled beyond Turkey's borders on 20 March 1995, as 35,000 troops backed by tanks and jets pursued rebels into northern Iraq. In the biggest military operation in the history of the Turkish republic, the troops hunted for suspected PKK bases. The PKK maintained the area was home only to Iraqi Kurds, not the PKK. Turkey said it was targeting 2,400 guerrillas who had been mounting cross-border raids and that it would not pull out until a buffer zone or other plan was set up to keep the PKK from moving back into the area. Western leaders condemned the incursion, and the eventual Turkish pullout was seen as a reaction to that negative pressure. Meanwhile, Turkey promised reforms to improve the lives of the 11 million Kurds living there. It said it would lift restrictions on broadcasts in Kurdish and allow Kurds to establish their own schools after the PKK was crushed. The battle would continue until 27 April, when Turkey declared that its mission to wipe out PKK base camps, arms depots, and supply routes in northern Iraq was a success. It said it would go back into Iraq if it again became necessary to strike at the rebels. Turkey said its next task would be to secure the border.
At the same time territorial conflicts with Greece erupted. On 1 June 1995, the Greek parliament ratified the international Law of the Sea treaty, drawing protests from Turkish leaders who saw the move as an attempt by Greece to extend its territorial waters. Almost eight weeks later the two nations narrowly avoided confrontation over a cluster of uninhabited islands in the Aegean Sea. Though on 31 January Greek Prime Minister Constantine Simitis withdrew forces from the area, tensions remained high through April, when a Greek coast guard patrol boat fired on Turkish fishermen suspected of smuggling illegal migrants to the Greek islet of Strongili. Meanwhile in May tensions between Greek and Turkish soldiers on Cyprus escalated, culminating in the fatal shooting of a Greek soldier.
The Kurdish and Greek issues were complicated by political instability within Turkey through the spring of 1996. On 20 September 1995, Prime Minister Tansu Ciller resigned when her coalition fell apart over budgetary matters. When Ciller lost a vote of confidence on 15 October, her own party, the True Path, called for national elections on 24 December. Turkey's president Suleyman Demirel asked Ciller to form a new interim government, a coalition destroyed almost two months later by the triumph of the Islamic Welfare Party in the December elections. In an effort to block Islamic fundamentalists from gaining power, Ciller made overtures to her longtime rivals in the conservative Motherland Party. When negotiations failed, President Demirel in early January invited Islamic Welfare Party leader Necmettin Erbakan to form a government. This effort was unsuccessful, as was the early February attempt by Motherland Party head Mesut Yilmuz. The stalemate ended early in March when Ciller and Yilmuz agreed on a government that left the Islamic Welfare Party out. The following month, in retaliation, Islamic representatives in parliament successfully moved to investigate allegations of corruption against Ciller. As a result of infighting, the center-right coalition fell apart in early June, allowing Erbakan to become modern Turkey's first conservative Islamic prime minister. The instability, as well as Erbakan's anti-West, antisecular slogans, caused Turkey's economy to lapse and slowed foreign investment significantly.
Beginning in early 1997, Turkey's military leaders began to speak openly of their displeasure with the Islamist turn the country had taken under Erbakan's government—even intimating that if the government did not return to secular policies instituted by Ataturk nearly a century earlier, it would overthrow the government militarily. Erbakan had angered the military, which considers itself the defenders of the country's secularism, by proposing mandatory Islamic education and by making political overtures to Libya and Iran. Pressure from the military increased in late spring and early summer, and Turkey's neighbors in Europe and allies in the United States also expressed concern over the direction the NATO member was taking. The crisis was resolved in July 1997, when the Welfare Party's coalition fell apart, and its leader, Erbakan, resigned his post. After the resignation, Mesut Yilmaz, leader of the Motherland Party, was asked by President Demirel to form a government. Erbakan, upon resigning, said he did so with the full intention of returning to office one day and predicted his ultraconservative Welfare Party would win more than 21% in the next elections, then scheduled for 2000.
Ciller came under heavy scrutiny again in early 1997 in a renewed round of allegations concerning her financial affairs. Opponents in parliament and within her own party accused her and her husband of enriching themselves during her term as prime minister. The parliamentary investigations came as Ciller was defending herself against charges that her government and previous administrations condoned death squads. The scandal came to light in November 1996 after an automobile accident that killed a senior police official. Also in the car was a convicted drug smuggler wanted by Interpol and a high-ranking member of parliament.
By November 1998, Yilmaz's government fell victim to another corruption scandal and Ecevit returned as interim prime minister. Within two months of returning to power, Ecevit scored a major victory for his government through the capture of Kurdish terrorist leader Abdulah Ocalan in Nairobi, Kenya. Ocalan had taken refuge in the Greek embassy in Nairobi and was apprehended while on the way to the airport (and an African country willing to provide him with asylum). Ocalan's capture brought relations with Greece to a new low as Ecevit accused Greece of being a state sponsor of terrorism.
In the wake of the terrorist leader's arrest, Ecevit called for early elections to be held in April 1999. The balloting resulted in a plurality for Ecevit's DSP (Democratic Left Party) which captured 136 out of 550 seats (22.3% of the vote) in the parliament. The MHP came second with 129 (18.1%), the Virtue Party (successor to the outlawed Welfare Party) dropped to 111 seats (15.5%), while the Motherland Party received 86 seats (13.3%). Ecevit formed a coalition with MHP and Motherland thus strengthening his position with the secularist military and isolating the Islamists.
Ecevit continued to make progress in foreign affairs throughout 1999 and into 2000. Relations in Greece saw marked improvement following a major earthquake that killed 20,000 Turkish citizens in August 1999. Greece was among the first nations to send aid—an act of humanitarian assistance warmly received by the Turkish government and public. When Greece suffered a smaller earthquake the following month, Turkey returned the favor. A dialogue on cooperation between the two countries in areas of mutual interest subsequently resulted in accords in the areas of trade and the fight against terrorism. Many international observers placed emphasis on the warm personal relationship between Turkish foreign minister Ismail Cem and his Greek counterpart George Papandreou. Finally, at the December 2000 EU summit in Helsinki, the EU member-states placed Turkey's name on the list of candidates for entry. Although most observers ruled out Turkish membership for at least 10–15 years, the decision was a symbolic victory for Turkey as it symbolized the efforts of most Turks to identify with the West.
In October 2001, the Turkish parliament voted for 34 changes to the constitution, as a way of improving Turkey's chances of joining the EU. Among the reforms were the abolition of the death penalty except in times of war and for acts of terrorism, ending torture in prisons, and allowances for the use of the Kurdish language in broadcasting and education. However, in May 2002, parliament approved a law increasing government control over the media, including the Internet. At an EU summit held in Copenhagen in December 2002, Turkey was not included in a list of 10 countries to be included in an expanded EU. US president George W. Bush had pressed for early accession talks on Turkey, but EU members stated the country needed more time to demonstrate progress on improving human rights, the economy, and on reducing the influence of the military on Turkish politics. Talks on Turkey's application were deferred until December 2004.
The situation on EU enlargement was made more difficult for Turkey as Cyprus was included in the group of 15 prospective new members: the EU accepted the Greek Cypriot government as a member in 2004 even though reunification was not achieved. In 2005, the EU stated Turkey would have to formally recognize Cyprus in order to join the organization. Accession talks were delayed until Turkey would agree to recognize Cyprus, something Turkey refused to do as of July 2005. However, Turkey decided in January 2004 to ban the death penalty in all circumstances. In June 2004, Turkish state television broadcast for the first time a Kurdish language program. In September 2004, parliament approved a set of penal reforms introducing tougher measures to prevent torture and violence against women. In May, parliament amended the new penal law to ease restrictions on the media. All of these measures were welcomed by the EU, although it still held Turkey failed to meet all of its concerns regarding human rights.
Ahmet Necdet Sezer was elected president on 5 May 2000. He was the first president in modern Turkish history to be neither an active politician nor a military commander. He is seen as a secularist. Early parliamentary elections were held on 3 November 2002, after eight ministers, including foreign minister Ismail Cem, resigned in July, protesting Prime Minister Ecevit's refusal to leave office despite a dire economic and political climate. Ecevit's health was poor, Turkey was in its most severe recession since World War II, the domestic political situation was volatile, and a US-led war with Iraq was looming, one that would depend upon Turkish cooperation. In the November elections, the newly formed Islamist-based Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi or AK) won a landslide victory, allowing it to rule without a coalition and amend the constitution by taking 363 of 550 seats in parliament. The AK pledged to adhere to the secular principles of the constitution. Abdullah Gül was named prime minister, largely because the party's leader, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, was barred from the National Assembly due to a 1998 criminal conviction for inciting religious hatred, after he recited a religious poem deemed to be seditious. In February 2003, parliament amended the constitution, allowing Erdogan to be eligible as a candidate in parliamentary by-elections in March, which paved the way for him to become prime minister. He became prime minister on 14 March.
During 2002 and into 2003, the international community, led by the United States, placed pressure on Iraq to rid itself of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Weapons inspectors returned to Iraq, and a rift in the international community emerged as to whether "serious consequences" should result if Iraq was found to be in material breach of UN Resolution 1441, which called on Iraq to disarm. ("Serious consequences" were read as war). In December 2002, Erdogan stated the AK-led government was ready to support a military strike against Iraq. He stated that Turkey was concerned that the territorial integrity of Iraq be preserved after a war, that the economic effects of such a conflict should be taken into consideration, but that weapons of mass destruction in Iraq could not be tolerated. Turkey was also concerned about the possible effects of war on its Kurdish population: if the 3.5 million Kurds in northern Iraq organized following a defeat of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's forces, Turkey feared they might want to form an independent Kurdish state, and to potentially unite with the 12 million Kurds in southeastern Turkey.
In February 2003, the United States was negotiating a deal with Turkey for the use of its military bases in the event of an attack on Iraq, and in exchange, promised to prevent the Kurds from imposing a federation-style form of government in Iraq, ensuring their continued autonomy. The United States also agreed to allow Turkish troops to cross into Iraq to observe the disarmament of Kurds once fighting had stopped. The Turkish parliament voted on allowing as many as 62,000 US troops and 320 military aircraft to use Turkish bases in the event of war, in exchange for $26 billion in aid. At the time, 95% of the Turkish population was against a war with Iraq. Just prior to the launching of the Iraq War on 19 March 2003, parliament decided not to allow US troops to cross Turkish territory in order to set up a northern front in Iraq. However Turkey did allow the United States to use its airspace in the war with Iraq.
For years, foreign companies have been involved in plans for a hydro-electric dam, the Ilisu Dam project, to supply Turkey with irrigation and electricity. In November 2001, British contractor Balfour Beatty pulled out of the project, as did the Swiss bank UBS in March 2002, due to claims that the dam would have an adverse social and environmental impact on the region.
Turkey was a site of terrorist attacks in the early 2000s. In November 2003, 25 people were killed and more than 200 injured when two car bombs exploded near Istanbul's main synagogue. Just days later, two coordinated suicide bombings at the British consulate and a British bank in Istanbul killed 28 people. In March 2004, at least two people were killed in a suspected suicide attack on a building housing a Masonic lodge in Istanbul. In July 2004, three people died in a car bomb attack in the southeastern town of Van. Authorities accused the PKK of involvement, which the group denied. In July 2005, six people were killed in a bomb attack on a passenger train in the eastern part of the country. Again the authorities blamed the PKK for the act. That month, in the resort town of Kusadasi, an explosion on a minibus killed four people.
In January 2005, a new lira currency was introduced, as six zeros were stripped from old lira, ending an era in which banknotes were denominated in millions.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
The judicial system was left substantially intact by the 1982 constitution, except for the addition of special state security courts to handle cases involving terrorism and state security. There are four branches of courts: general law courts, military courts, state security courts, and a constitutional court.The general law courts include civil, administrative, and criminal courts. Decisions of civil courts with original jurisdiction are appealable to a high court of appeals in Ankara. The high court of appeals also hears cases involving charges against members of the cabinet and other high functionaries. It also hears appeals for criminal cases, including appeals from the state security courts. A council of state hears appeals from administrative cases.
The military courts have jurisdiction over military personnel and include courts of first instance and a military court of appeals.
The state security courts are composed of five-member panels. They are found in eight cities and try defendants accused of crimes dealing with terrorism, gang-related crimes, drug smuggling, membership in illegal organizations, and sedition.
The constitutional court reviews the constitutionality of legislation at the time of passage both when requested by the required percentage of members of parliament and in the context of review of constitutional issues which emerge during litigation.
The constitution guarantees the independence of the judiciary from the executive and provides for life tenure for judges. It also explicitly prohibits state authorities from issuing orders or recommendations concerning the exercise of judicial power. A high council of judges and prosecutors selects judges and prosecutors for the higher courts and oversees those in lower courts. In practice, the courts act independently of the executive.
The constitution guarantees defendants the right to a public trial. The bar association is responsible for providing free counsel to indigent defendants. There is no jury system. All cases are decided by a judge or a panel of judges.
The European Court of Human Rights is the final arbiter in cases concerning human rights.
ARMED FORCES
In 2005, Turkey's total armed forces had a strength of 514,850 active personnel and 378,700 reservists. The Army numbered 402,000 personnel and included 17 armored brigades, 15 mechanized brigades, 15 infantry brigades, and 2 infantry divisions. Army equipment included 4,205 main battle tanks, over 250 reconnaissance vehicles, 650 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 3,643 armored personnel carriers, and more than 7,450 artillery pieces. The Turkish Navy had 52,750 personnel, including 3,100 Marines and 1,050 active naval personnel in the Coast Guard. Major naval units included 13 tactical submarines, 19 frigates, 55 patrol and coastal vessels, 35 mine warfare, 67 amphibious, and 27 logistical/support ships. The naval aviation arm operated seven fixed wing and 16 rotary wing aircraft. The Air Force had 60,100 personnel and 445 combat capable aircraft, including 87 fighters and 358 fighter ground attack aircraft. Paramilitary forces included a 100,000-member national guard/gendarmerie (with 50,000 reservists). An estimated 36,000 Turkish soldiers were stationed on Cyprus. Turkey participated in other peacekeeping and other military missions in six regions or countries. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $9.81 billion.
Turkey belongs to the Australia Group, the Zangger Committee, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (London Group), the Nuclear Energy Agency, and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. It holds observer status in the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).
Relations with the United States, Turkey's principal aid benefactor, were strained during the 1970s over the Cyprus issue. After the Turkish military forces, using US-supplied equipment, had occupied the northern third of the island, the US Congress in 1975 embargoed military shipments to Turkey in accordance with US law. In response, Turkey abrogated its 1969 defense cooperation agreement with the United States and declared that it would take over US military installations in Turkey (except the NATO base at Adana). The US government then relaxed the arms embargo and finally ended it in 1978, after which Turkey lifted its ban on US military activities. Turkish-US relations improved markedly thereafter, and a new defense and economic cooperation agreement between the two countries was signed in 1980. In 1986, the 1980 agreement was renewed, allowing the United States to use some 15 Turkish military bases in exchange for continuing military and economic subsidies. Relations between Greece and Turkey also remain strained over the issue of Cyprus.
In environmental cooperation, Turkey is part of the Antarctic Treaty, the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, Ramsar, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
Turkey is a charter member of the United Nations, having joined on 24 October 1945, and belongs to ECE and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the IAEA, the World Bank, UNHCR, UNESCO, UNCTAD, ILO, and the WHO. Turkey is also a member of the WTO, the Asian Development Bank, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Zone, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the Islamic Development Bank, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), NATO, and the OECD. As of 2005, Turkey was a candidate for membership to the European Union. The nation holds observer status in the OAS and is an associate member of the Western European Union.Turkey belongs to the Australia Group, the Zangger Committee, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (London Group), the Nuclear Energy Agency, and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. It holds observer status in the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).
Relations with the United States, Turkey's principal aid benefactor, were strained during the 1970s over the Cyprus issue. After the Turkish military forces, using US-supplied equipment, had occupied the northern third of the island, the US Congress in 1975 embargoed military shipments to Turkey in accordance with US law. In response, Turkey abrogated its 1969 defense cooperation agreement with the United States and declared that it would take over US military installations in Turkey (except the NATO base at Adana). The US government then relaxed the arms embargo and finally ended it in 1978, after which Turkey lifted its ban on US military activities. Turkish-US relations improved markedly thereafter, and a new defense and economic cooperation agreement between the two countries was signed in 1980. In 1986, the 1980 agreement was renewed, allowing the United States to use some 15 Turkish military bases in exchange for continuing military and economic subsidies. Relations between Greece and Turkey also remain strained over the issue of Cyprus.
In environmental cooperation, Turkey is part of the Antarctic Treaty, the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, Ramsar, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.
ECONOMY
Since the end of World War II, the agricultural share of the economy has declined, while that of the industrial sector (including construction) has expanded. This shift in economic activity is in part the result of deliberate government policy. Mechanization of agriculture has produced a significant shift in population from farms to cities, necessitating substantial urban and industrial development and, hence, a high rate of investment. However, this heavy investment, plus an explosion of consumer demand, has also contributed to severe inflation and balance-of-payments problems. In the mid-2000s, agriculture contributed about 12% to nominal GDP, and employed over 35% of the workforce, including 25% of male employment and 60% of female employment. Industry accounts for about 30% of GDP and 25% of the labor force, and the service sector accounts for some 58% of GDP and 40% of the labor force.During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Turkey enjoyed a high economic growth rate, averaging about 7% annually. This growth was financed largely by foreign borrowing, increased exports, and remittances from Turkish workers in Western Europe. As a result of the large increases in oil import costs during 1973–74, however, Turkey's economic growth declined in real terms during 1974–80, and the country suffered a severe financial crisis. Stabilization programs implemented in 1978 and 1979 under a standby agreement with the IMF proved inadequate, but in January 1980, as a condition of further IMF aid, Turkey imposed a more stringent economic reform program, involving currency devaluation, labor productivity improvements, and restructuring of the nation's inefficient state enterprises.
In response to the reforms, the GDP grew on average by 4.8% from 1980 to 1994, the highest rate of any OECD economy. In 1994, structural problems, including inflation rates of between 60–90% and budget deficits of between 6–12%, eventually took their toll, plunging the economy into its worst recession since World War II. Real GDP declined by 6% and the inflation rate exceeded 130%. The underlying strength of the economy, together with a government austerity program designed to rein in spending, led to a turnaround in 1996, and in 1997 GDP grew by 8%. In 1998, real GDP growth slowed and then turned negative as the economy was effected by the Russian financial crisis and domestic political turmoil. Conditions worsened in 1999 as on 17 August 1999 Turkey was hit by the Kocaeli Earthquake (between Bursa and Izmik), the worst ever to hit the country, killing over 15,000, seriously injuring over 28,000, leaving about 500,000 homeless, and causing an estimated $5 billion worth of damage. In 1999, nominal GDP growth was 46.3%, but inflation, as measured by the consumer price index (CPI), was 68.8% and real GDP declined 6.1%.
At the end of 1999, Turkey entered into a three-year standby arrangement with the IMF with a approved credit line of sdr15.038 billion (1560% of its quota, well in excess of the 300% of quota that is IMF's normal limit), with a stringent set of conditions designed to bring Turkey's chronic inflation under control. The World Bank followed in 2000 with a Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) that provided external program lending, technical assistance, analytical and policy advice. In 1999, the government took over 10 insolvent private banks and then began criminal investigations into their operations. Several arrests were made of key bankers, including the nephew of a former president, accused of siphoning off funds in various ways. During 2000 real GDP grew at 6.3% and CPI inflation decreased to 39%. However, in late November the economy was suddenly beset with a banking crisis as foreign investors, apparently more concerned about what further investigations might reveal than convinced that banking was being cleansed, began to rapidly sell their Turkish assets and cut lending. An estimated $6 billion left Turkey in 10 days, $2.5 billion on 22 November 2000 alone. Overnight interbank interest rates climbed to an annualized 1700%, at one point reaching 1950%. Domestic interest rates rose to 60%, almost double the precrisis level.
By early 2001, Turkey's stock market had lost nearly half of its value. A break in the precipitous divestment was achieved when the IMF announced an agreement to supply an additional $7.5 billion credit in a one-year program under its Supplemental Reserve Facility (SRF) to run from 21 December 2000 to 20 December 2001. The reversal of the outflow proved only temporary, however. By late February 2001 the economy was plunged into a full-blown financial crisis, precipitated by the president's criticism of the prime minister's handling of the banking investigations during a meeting on 19 February 2001. The interbank overnight rate reached an annualized 7500% and the stock market lost nearly 18% of is value within a day. The central bank reportedly sold $5 billion of its $28 billion of reserves trying to defend the lira's exchange rate, but on 22 February 2001 it announced its decision to allow the lira to float. Its value dropped 36% in two days, as the exchange rate for the lira moved to 1,223,140 per 1 US dollar. For the year, real GDP fell 9.4% and inflation, measured by 12-month end-of-period CPI, increased nearly 30% to 68.5%. Net public debt rose to 93.4% of GDP, up from 57.7% the year before. Net external debt doubled as a percent of GDP from 18.5% to 37.1%. In a step designed to restore investor confidence, Kemal Dervish, former vice president of the World Bank, was appointed head of the Turkish central bank. In July 2001 the World Bank revised its 2000 CAS program to include an additional $1.2 billion on Special Structural Adjustment Loan (SSAL) terms, for a total possible lending of $6.2 billion in the period 2001 to 2003. On 4 February 2001, the day Turkey's three-year stand-by arrangement with the IMF expired, the government entered into a new two-year stand-by arrangement with a sdr8.194 billion ($11.3 billion) line of credit.
As of 30 April 2002, Turkey had outstanding with the IMF over sdr14 billion ($19.3 billion). Turkey's economic prospects seemed to be balanced between the confidence that can be engendered by its strict adherence to anticorruption, fiscal, monetary, and privatization reform programs and the political resistance and instability such strict adherence might provoke. Real GDP growth for 2002 was projected to be 3% with inflation held to the official target of 35%.
By 2005, Turkey's recovery from the 2001 economic crisis was being regarded as a "miracle." GDP grew at a rate of 8% in 2004, and inflation was down to single digits (just over 9%) for the first time in 30 years. Turkey has a long-held objective of becoming a member of the EU, and EU accession negotiations were opened in October 2005, as if to cement confidence in Turkey's economic recovery. The EU's decision followed on the heels of a three-year, $10 billion IMF stand-by agreement. Credit disbursements from the agreement of May 2005 depended upon the implementation of policies to reduce government debt, lower inflation, and increase competitiveness. However, the stabilization program had the drawback of not promoting a reduction in unemployment and income inequality. Exports were doing well in 2005, even to Iraq, and the war in Iraq did not deter tourists from visiting Turkey (tourism receipts amounted to a record $12.6 billion in the first nine months of 2004). The banking system was restructured with a large injection of public funds. On 1 January 2005, Turkey introduced a new lira, eliminating six zeros from the old one. In 2006, however, a fall in the value of the lira was forecast to lead to slightly higher inflation and GDP growth of 3.5%, down from about 5% in 2005. An increase in domestic demand and strong exports were projected to lead to higher growth in 2007. Real GDP growth averaged 3.8% from 2001–05. The predicted slowdown in 2006 was forecast to reduce the current-account deficit from 5.9% of GDP in 2005 to 3.5% in 2006–07. The current-account deficit was estimated at $21 billion in 2005. The government's large debt, at 74% of GDP, remains a vulnerability. Unemployment remained high, at 10% in 2005, but it was as high as 70% in some Kurdish regions in the southeast.
INCOME
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Turkey's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $551.6 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $7,900. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.1%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 7.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 11.7% of GDP, industry 29.8%, and services 58.5%.According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $729 million or about $10 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.3% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $166 million or about $2 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.1% of the gross national income (GNI).
The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Turkey totaled $160.08 billion or about $2,264 per capita based on a GDP of $240.4 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.5%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 45% of household consumption was spent on food, 18% on fuel, 6% on health care, and 5% on education. It was estimated that in 2002 about 20% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.
LABOR
Turkey's labor force in 2005 was estimated at 24.7 million. As of third quarter 2004, agriculture accounted for 35.9% of the workforce, with 41.2% in services, and 22.8% in industry. The unemployment rate was estimated at 10% in 2005, with another 4% of the workforce as underemployed. Approximately 1.2 million Turkish workers are employed in other countries.A 1946 law authorized the formation of labor unions and enabled them to engage in collective bargaining, and the right to strike was legally permitted in 1963, although general, solidarity, and wildcat strikes are explicitly prohibited. Employers' unions also exist, but members of one kind of union are prohibited from joining the other. As of 2005, about 25% of the country's wage and salaried workforce were unionized. Union membership was largest in the textile industry, tobacco manufacturing, public utilities, transport and communications, and coal mining. After the 1960 overthrow of the Menderes government, trade unions pressed the government to act upon their demands for the right to strike, for collective labor contracts, and for various social benefits, which were provided for in law but had not been fully implemented. However, the right to strike and the right to bargain collectively remained restricted as of 2005.
A detailed labor code administered by the Ministry of Labor controls many aspects of labor-management relations. As of 2005, Turkey had a basic 45-hour workweek, with a weekly day of rest. Overtime was limited to three hours per day, for no more than 90 days per year. The minimum wage was $360 per month in the second half of 2005. Minimum wage rates are set semiannually by Turkey's Minimum Wage Commission. Workers usually are entitled to one paid day off per week. The minimum working age is 15, but in practice child labor, as of 2005, was widespread. Turkey's State Statistical Institute in 2004 reported that 764,000 children between the ages of 12 and 17 were working. However some observers claim that the figures were unreliable and that the number of child laborers was actually increasing.
AGRICULTURE
About 26 million hectares (64.2 million acres), or 34% of Turkey's total land area, is considered arable; in any given year, about two-thirds of arable land is under crops, and one-third is fallow. Little uncultivated arable land remains. The average holding is not more than four or five hectares (10–12 acres). Dry grain farming—in which half the land must lie fallow each year—offers little more than a subsistence standard of living. About 35% of the labor force is engaged in agriculture, which provided 13% of GDP in 2003. Large farms are concentrated mainly in the Konya, Adana, and İzmir regions. Agricultural methods still tend to be primitive, but modern machinery has been introduced. Much new land has been brought under cultivation since World War II (1939–45), and the increased use of chemical fertilizers and expansion of irrigated lands have increased yields per acre overall. In 2003, about 20% of all arable land was irrigated. Nevertheless, crop yields are still extremely sensitive to variations in rainfall. In good crop years, Turkey exports cereals, but in drought years, it must import them.About 90% of the cultivated area is devoted to cereals. Wheat is the principal crop, accounting for about 60% of total grain production in 2004; 21,000,000 tons of wheat were grown in that year, followed by barley with 9,000,000 tons. Turkey also produced 13,965,000 tons of sugar beets and about 3,600,000 tons of grapes. Other agricultural products were grown in lesser but still important quantities in 2004: maize, 3,000,000 tons; sunflower seeds, 900,000 tons; cotton, 903,600 tons; and oranges, 1,280,000 tons.
Turkish tobacco is world famous for its lightness and mildness. Most of the crop is grown in the Aegean region, but the finest tobacco is grown around Samsun, on the Black Sea coast. Tobacco and tobacco products represented 8% of total agricultural exports in 2004 and 0.8% of all Turkish exports that same year. Some 160,000 tons of tobacco were produced in 2004. Most of the cotton crop is grown around Adana and İzmir. Other crops of commercial importance include olives (1,600,000 tons in 2004), tea (153,800 tons), fruits, nuts, and vegetable oil. Turkey usually leads the world in the production and export of hazelnuts (about 425,000 tons produced in 2004) and also is a leading producer of pistachio nuts (30,000 tons).
The government stimulates production through crop subsidies, low taxation, price supports, easy farm credit, research and education programs, and the establishment of model farms. The government also controls the conditions under which farm products can move into world markets. For some products, such as grain, the government is the sole exporter. Turkey began exporting vegetables and fruits abroad, which affected domestic market prices. Cotton and tobacco production levels are increasing as demands by the textile and cigarette industries have risen.
Turkey is one of seven countries authorized under the 1961 UN Convention on Narcotic Drugs to grow opium poppies for legitimate pharmaceutical purposes. In June 1971, after persistent US complaints that up to 80% of all opiates smuggled into the United States were derived from Turkish poppies, the Turkish government banned poppy growing; however, after efforts to find substitute crops failed, the government decided to rescind the ban on 1 July 1974. Areas authorized for poppy cultivation were estimated at 37,500 hectares (92,700 acres) in 1983; 5,000 hectares (12,350 acres) of opium capsule were sown in 1985. Government steps to curtail illegal cultivation, refining, and export of opiates were reportedly successful; in fact, Turkey has been one of the few opium-growing countries to crack down hard on drug smuggling.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Turkey is heavily overgrazed. Many animals are used for transport and draft purposes as well as to supply meat and dairy products. The principal animals of commercial importance are mohair goats and sheep. The sheep wool is used mainly for blankets and carpets, and Turkey is a leading producer of mohair. Nevertheless, animal husbandry is generally poorly developed despite the great number of animals. In 2005 there were 25.2 million sheep, 10 million head of cattle, 6.6 million goats, and 297 million chickens. Production of wool was estimated at 46,000 tons in 2005. Other livestock products included cow's milk, 9.5 million tons; poultry meat, 940,000 tons; and hen eggs, 830,000 tons. Turkish apiculture produced some 73,900 tons of honey in 2005, fourth in the world.FISHING
The total marine catch by Turkey's deep-sea fishermen was 502,800 tons in 2003, most of it anchovies and sardines caught as they migrate seasonally through the Bosporus. In addition, 84,915 tons of freshwater fish were caught. Fishing equipment and methods have been substantially upgraded in recent years. For most of the population, however, the sea is not an important source of food. Exports of fish and fish products amounted to $148.8 million in 2003.
FORESTRY
Forests occupy 10,225,000 hectares (25,266,000 acres), or 13.3% of Turkey's total land area. State forests include almost all the forestland, while community or municipal forests and private forests are small. Care of state forests and all cutting therein are the responsibility of the directorate-general of forestry within the Ministry of Agriculture. The timber cut in 2004 yielded 15,870,000 cu m (558 million cu ft) of roundwood, with 32% used as fuel wood. Production of sawn wood in 2004 was 5,615,000 cu m (198.2 million cu ft); wood pulp 225,000 tons; wood-based panels, 3,232,000 cu m (114 million cu ft) and paper and paperboard, 1,643,000 tons.MINING
Although Turkey had a wide variety of minerals, its resources were only partially developed. Turkey was a leading producer of boron, and was known for such industrial minerals as barite, celestite (strontium), clays, emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite, marble, perlite, pumice, and trona (soda ash). Other minerals actively exploited and marketed were copper, chromite, iron ore, sulfur, pyrite, manganese, mercury, lead, zinc, and meerschaum. Mining, steelmaking, petroleum, and construction, were leading industries in Turkey. Turkey was a significant exporter of borates and steel, and also exported chromite, copper, zinc, and a wide variety of industrial minerals and derived chemicals. In 2003, exports of minerals and chemical based commodities and products accounted for approximately 22% of Turkey's $47.2 billion in exports, or around $10,7 billion. Among crude minerals in 2003: copper exports earned $2,481 million; metal ores, about $56 million; and borates and concentrates, around $84 million.In 2003 preliminary production of: copper (metal content) was 45,000 metric tons, down from 48,253 metric tons in 2002; dolomite, 1,158,539 metric tons; limestone (other than for cement), 28.609 million metric tons, down from 30.261 million metric tons in 2002; marble, 544,629 cu m, compared to 557,630 in 2002; quartzite, 2.908,584 metric tons; boron concentrates, 1.4 million metric tons, up from 1.346 million metric tons in 2002; bauxite from the public sector, 364,306 metric tons (about 30,000 metric tons per year were produced by the private sector); feldspar, 1,862,310 metric tons; iron ore (metal content), 2.1 million metric tons, down from 2.4 million metric tons in 2002; celestite strontium concentrates, 70,000 metric tons; and meerschaum, 200 kg (estimated), down from 200 kg in 2002. Eskisehir, in northwestern Anatolia, was the world center of meerschaum (sepiolite). Turkey was famous for its meerschaum pipes. Also produced in 2003 were alumina, antimony, gold, lead, manganese, silver, alumina sulfate (alunite), barite, hydraulic cement, clays (including bentonite and kaolin), emery, fluorspar, crude glass, graphite, gypsum, lime, magnesite, nitrogen, perlite, pumice, cupreous pyrite, sand and gravel, silica sand, sodium compounds (salt, soda ash [trona], and sodium sulfate), stone (basalt, diabase, granite, onyx, sandstone, serpentine, slate, and travertine), sulfur, talc, and zeolite. No smelted zinc or cadmium were produced in 2003.
Despite the divestment of a large portion of the state-owned minerals sector holdings, to domestic and foreign investors, the government remained a significant factor in most sectors of the minerals industry, through shareholdings in a number of private companies and various state-owned industrial corporations. In recent years, the government has been encouraging mineral exports as well as domestic and foreign private mining investment. Ongoing privatization costs were expected to result in layoffs and the closure of inefficient operations. Most of the nation's 3,000 mines were small. Resources of metallic commodities minable by largescale methods were known for bauxite, chromite, copper and copper-zinc, gold, iron, and silver.
ENERGY AND POWER
Turkey has only modest reserves of oil and natural gas, while its coal reserves are generally of indifferent quality and highly polluting. However, the country's geographic location makes it a natural bridge between European consumer markets and the major oil producing areas in the Middle East and in the Caspian Sea region.As of 1 January 2005, Turkey had proven oil reserves estimated at 300 million barrels. In 2004, oil output was estimated at 42,904 barrels per day, of which 42,421 barrels per day was accounted for by crude oil. However, in that same year, demand for oil averaged 685,000 barrels per day, of which net imports accounted for 642,081 barrels per day. Crude oil refining capacity is spread over seven refineries with a combined crude oil refining capacity of 802,275 barrels per day, which includes the privately owned Atas refinery at 88,000 barrels per day. Reported as of July 2005, by the Energy Information Agency, oil accounts for more than 40% of Turkey's total energy requirements, although its share is falling due to the increasing use of natural gas. Approximately 90% of Turkey's oil is imported.
Although Turkey has proven reserves of natural gas, nearly all of Turkey's demand for natural gas is met by imports. As of 1 January 2005, Turkey's natural gas reserves were estimated at 300 billion cu ft. Production in 2003 was estimated at only 20 billion cu ft while demand was estimated at 748 billion cu ft. Imports that year were estimated at 728 billion cu ft. The bulk of Turkey's demand for natural gas in 2003, around 65%, was accounted for by the country's power sector. Residential and industrial users accounted for 14% and 19% of demand, respectively, in 2003.
In 2003, Turkey's recoverable coal reserves were estimated at 4.6 billion short tons. Coal production that year came to 53.1 million short tons, with demand at 71.0 million short tons. Imports of coal in 2003 were estimated at 17.9 million short tons. Coal produced in Turkey is used largely for electric power generation.
As of early 2004, Turkey's electric generating capacity was estimated at 32.3 GW, of which 40% of capacity was fueled by natural gas, 28% by hydropower, 24% by coal, and only 7% by oil. In 2003, net electricity production totaled an estimated 133.6 terawatthours (Twh), with demand in that same year estimated at 124.9 Twh. For almost 20 years, Turkey has been one of fastest growing markets for electricity in the world. Although the country's 2001 economic crisis has dampened demand for electricity, the Turkish government foresees the need for a significant increase in the country's generating capacity.
INDUSTRY
Overall industrial production, which had increased by annual rates of close to or over 10% from 1973 to 1977, fell sharply because of Turkey's financial crisis in 1978–79 and actually declined by 5% in 1979 and 1980. After the government's economic reform program slowed inflation and stabilized the lira, industrial production improved. Production rose 28% during 1985–87. State enterprises were restructured to reduce their government subsidies and to make them more productive and competitive with private firms. However, industry has continued to suffer from structural weaknesses and, in many firms, production facilities are obsolete. Production rose by an annual average of almost 5% 1980 to 1993, but fell more than 6% in the recession of 1994 as the chronic double digit inflation rose to triple digits at 128%. Manufacturing output recovered strongly from 1994 to 1995, rising 30% from $34.3 billion to $44.7 billion, and then to $46.6 billion in 1996. The industrial production index (1992=100) rose to a peak of about 132 in May 1997, and capacity utilization peaked in September at 82%. The Russian financial crisis helped throw both indicators into decline and by August 1999 the industrial production index had fallen 20% to about 111 and capacity utilization to about 67%. Another period of recovery lasted until the banking crisis of late 2000, although capacity utilization remained below 77%. From November 2000 to October 2001 the industrial production index fell 20%, from 130 to 110, and capacity utilization dipped below 74%. The 2001 industrial output declined 8.9% including a 9.9% decline in manufacturing, a 7.9% decline in mining, and a 1.5% decline in utility outputs. Continuing its roller coaster pattern, in the first quarter of 2002, the industrial production index was back up to 132 as capacity utilization rose marginally to 75%.
As of 2005, industry, excluding construction, accounted for about 25% of GDP and just under 20% of employment. Construction contributes about 4–5% of GDP, down from 6–8% of GDP in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The industrial production growth rate in 2004 was 16.5%.
The textile industry, Turkey's largest manufacturing sector (accounting for one-third of industrial employment), is centered in İzmir, Istanbul, Adana, and Kayseri. The removal of EU quotas on imports of textiles and apparel when Turkey joined in a customs union with the EU in 1996 has improved growth prospects, but the removal of global quotas in 2005 causes Turkey to face stiff competition on international markets for its textiles and clothing.
Secondary mineral commodities, including refined petroleum products, steel, cement, glass, and certain chemicals account for over two-thirds of manufacturing output. Turkey's largest industry is petroleum refining. Turkey has very limited energy resources, but because of its strategic location between Europe and Asia, oil consumers and oil producers, it is crossed by several major oil and gas pipelines. Turkey has six oil refineries, four operated by the state. The four state refineries—at Izmit, at Aliaga, at Kirikkale, and at Batman—were built by the National Oil and Gas Company of Turkey (TPAO—Turkiye Petrolleri A.O.). The major private refinery in Turkey is Anadolu Tasfiyehanesi A.S. (ATAS). A small refinery in the southeast was bought in 1997 by Aladdin Middle East Ltd., a US-based company concerned mainly with oil exploration and development in this Kurdish-dominated region. Total refinery production suffered in the Russian financial crisis of 1998 and the Izmit earthquake of 1999, which damaged the Izmit Refinery in Kocaeli Province, epicenter of the earthquake.
Major industrial complexes include the government-owned iron and steel mill at Karabuk and the Eregli iron and steel works. Other important Turkish enterprises are brick and tile, glass, leather, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, metalworking, cordage, flour milling, vegetable-oil extraction, fats and oils, paper products, printing and publishing, plastic products, and rubber processing. The sugar-beet industry ranks first among food-processing industries and produces more than domestic consumption requires. The automobile industry expanded rapidly in the 1970s and continued to be a growth sector in the mid-2000s. Tofas, a joint venture between Fiat and Koc Holding A.S., Turkey's biggest industrial conglomerate, is the leading automotive producer. Much of the production of machines, consumer goods, and tools takes place in hundreds of small machine shops and foundries, where little special-purpose machinery is used. In addition to textiles and clothing and motor vehicles, consumer electronics was the most dynamic sector of the economy by 2006.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Turkey's industrial economy has just begun to apply advanced technology to basic industries. The government body that coordinates scientific research is the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (founded in 1963), in Ankara. The Mavmara Scientific and Industrial Research Institute (1972), in Istanbul, conducts research on basic and applied sciences, and industrial research. The Ankara Nuclear Research and Training Center (1967), attached to the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority, studies health physics, nuclear electronics, and plasma physics. The General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (1935), also in Ankara, conducts the Geological Survey of Turkey and evaluates mineral resources. The Turkish Natural History Museum was founded in 1968 at Ankara. Turkey has 29 universities that offer courses in basic and applied sciences. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 45% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, of all bachelor's degrees awarded, 22.1% were for the sciences (natural, mathematics and computers, engineering).In 2002, total expenditures on research and development (R&D) amounted to $2,965.522 million, or 0.67% of GDP. Of that amount, the government accounted for 50.6%, followed by the business sector at 41.3%. Private nonprofit organizations and foreign sources accounted for 6.9% and 1,3%, respectively. In that same year, there were 345 scientists and engineers, and 37 technicians engaged in research and development per million people. High technology exports in 2002 totaled $568 million, or 2% of the country's manufactured exports.
DOMESTIC TRADE
Individual firms tend to be small and specialized. There is virtually no commercial activity in villages; the villager comes into the market town to buy and sell. Government-operated exchanges for cereals are located in municipalities. If the price of grain in the free market falls below the supermarket price, the government-operated exchanges purchase the grain and market it. In this manner, the government controls the price range of cereals. Franchising has grown in the past few years, primarily in foreign fast-food and apparel firms. Value-added taxes apply to most goods and services with different rates for different products.Because of the scarcity of some commodities, the government controls the distribution of various essential goods, notably cement, coal, lignite, and steel. Under a 1954 law, municipal authorities enforce specified profit margins on designated commodities. These margins are established at four levels: importer or manufacturer, distributor, wholesaler, and retailer. Customarily, a Turkish wholesaler supplies credit to retailers who, in turn, often extend credit beyond their own means to consumers. Wholesalers' margins tend to be small because of low overhead and keen competition. Due to Turkey's high inflation rate, wholesalers usually try to maintain minimal stocks to reduce carrying costs.
Most commercial firms belong to chambers of commerce, which exist in all cities. Chambers of industry are increasingly important in larger manufacturing centers. The government sponsors an international trade fair every year at Iİzmir.
Shops are normally open from 9 am to 7 pm, Monday through Saturday; some establishments tend to stay open later in the evenings, some shops often have Sunday hours, and some close Friday nights for Muslim religious observances. Banking hours are from 9 am to 5 pm, Monday through Friday. Business hours are from 9 am to 5 pm, Monday through Friday, with an hour for lunch.
FOREIGN TRADE
Turkey's trade balance has long been negative, but the deficit reached crisis proportions in 1974/75 and again in 1980/81, when import value was nearly double that of exports and the annual trade deficit approached $5 billion. In 1985, the government mandated the creation of four free trade and export processing zones aimed at expansion and diversification of exports. By 1990, the deficit had risen to over $9 billion and the ratio of exports to imports fell to 58%, compared to 81% in 1988. The gap narrowed slightly in 1991 and 1992, but widened in 1993. Exports increased from $18.1 billion in 1994 to $21.6 billion in 1995 to $24.5 billion in 1996. Total imports in 1994 amounted to $23.3 billion, and rose to $35.7 billion in 1995 and $45 billion in 1996.After 1994, strong domestic demand caused imports to surge, along with the reduction of import duties that accompanied the
Country Exports Imports BalanceWorld 47,252.8 69,339.7 -22,086.9
Germany 7,484.9 9,453.0 -1,968.1
United States 3,753.9 3,496.6 257.3
United Kingdom 3,670.1 3,500.0 170.1
Italy-San Marino-Holy See 3,194.8 5,471.6 -2,276.8
France-Monaco 2,826.1 4,164.1 -1,338.0
Free zones 1,928.3 588.9 1,339.4
Spain 1,792.2 2,003.8 -211.6
Netherlands 1,525.9 1,656.7 -130.8
Russia 1,367.6 5,451.3 -4,083.7
Israel 1,083.0 459.5 623.5
(…) data not available or not significant.
Introduction of a customs union with the EU in 1996. By 2000, exports equaled only slightly more than half of imports (50.8%), bringing back memories of trade balances of the 1970s and '80s. The share of exports of goods and services in GDP surged to over 30% in the 2001 recession year in which domestic demand contracted sharply, but exports rose sharply, particularly due to the devaluation of the lira. That was the first time exports accounted for more than 25% of GDP. In 2002, the share of exports was 28.8%, and imports of goods and services amounted to about 30% of GDP. The foreign trade gap continued to widen in 2005, driven in part by high international oil prices.
The garment and textile industry in Turkey accounts for the largest amount of commodity exports. Other exports include iron and steel, fruits and nuts, and televisions.
Turkey's leading markets in 2004 were Germany (13.9% of all exports), the United Kingdom (8.8%), the United States (7.7%), Italy (7.4%), and France (5.8%). The 25 nations of the EU were the destination of 54.6% of Turkey's exports. In 2004, leading suppliers included Germany (12.8% of all imports), Russia (9.3%), Italy (7%), France (6.4%), and the United States (4.9%). Of Turkey's total imports, 46.6% came from the EU-25.
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
In 2000 and 2001, a trade deficit and a weak banking sector forced Turkey to float the lira, which caused the country to fall into recession. The economy improved in 2002, however, due in part to support from the IMF and tighter fiscal policies. The share of exports of goods and services in GDP rose to 31.5% in 2001, the first time it surpassed 25%. That year, imports of goods and services amounted to 29.2% of GDP. Total external debt by September 2001 stood at $118.3 billion. In 2004, exports amounted to $67 billion, while imports were $90.9 billion, leaving a trade deficit of $23.9 billion, compared with $14 billion in 2003. The foreign trade gap continued to widen in 2005, due in large measure to high internationalCurrent Account -6,850.0
Balance on goods -14,034.0
Imports -65,240.0
Exports 51,206.0
Balance on services 10,505.0
Balance on income -5,427.0
Current transfers 2,106.0
Capital Account …
Financial Account 6,959.0
Direct investment abroad -499.0
Direct investment in Turkey 1,562.0
Portfolio investment assets -1,386.0
Portfolio investment liabilities 3,955.0
Financial derivatives …
Other investment assets -986.0
Other investment liabilities 4,313.0
Net Errors and Omissions 3,978.0
Reserves and Related Items -4,087.0
(…) data not available or not significant.
Oil prices. The current-account deficit was estimated at $21 billion in 2005, or 5.9% of GDP.
BANKING AND SECURITIES
The Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1930 as a privileged joint-stock company. It possesses the sole right of note issue and has the obligation of providing for the monetary requirements of the state agricultural and commercial enterprises by discounting the treasury-guaranteed bonds they issue. All foreign exchange transfers are handled exclusively by the Central Bank, which operates the clearing accounts under separate agreements with foreign countries. The bank has 25 domestic branches, plus a banknote printing plant and foreign branch offices in New York, London, Frankfurt, and Zürich.As of 2002, Turkey had 69 banks. Banks supervised by the Central Bank play a declining role in the banking system, but 49% of total bank assets are still concentrated in three state-owned banks. The major private banks are mostly linked to industrial conglomerates, such as the Cukurova Group, owning the Construction and Credit Bank (Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi), Pamukbank, and Interbank; and the Sabanci Group, which owns Akbank. Several Western commercial banks are also active, as are some Middle Eastern trading banks. There are also three so-called special finance houses, which have adopted Islamic banking practices. Many observers predict large-scale bank consolidation as Turkey continues liberalizing its economy.
The five big state banks suffer from serious structural problems. These include overstaffing, political interference, and nonperforming loans to other state institutions, which are not recorded as such. Many small and medium-sized banks are also poorly run. Some of these were badly hit by the financial crash of early 1994, and three were forced to close. A widespread shakeout in the banking system is regarded as likely in the longer term.
Two of Turkey's most important banks, the Sümerbank and Etibank, are also state investment-holding companies. Another important state financial institution is the Agricultural Bank, which supplies credit to the farm population. The largest private commercial bank is the Business Bank. Another private bank, the Industrial Development Bank of Turkey, stimulates the growth of private industrial development and channels the flow of long-term debt capital into the private industrial sector for both short- and long-range development programs. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $8.7 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $86.8 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 91.95%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 60%.
The first securities market in the Ottoman Empire was the Dersaadet Securities Exchange, established in 1866. The Istanbul Stock Exchange opened in 1985 and the Istanbul Gold Exchange commenced operations 10 years later.
Turkey's only securities exchange is located in Istanbul. Because of the shortage of foreign exchange, there are no transactions in foreign bonds and stocks. With few exceptions, trading is in government bonds. Virtually all securities issued by private enterprises are sold privately through personal arrangements between buyers and sellers. Still, the Istanbul Stock Exchange has developed impressively, if not erratically, in recent years. In 2001, there were 310 companies listed, the most in the exchange's history. Total market capitalization was $47 billion, and trading value was nearly $78 billion with a sky-high turnover rate of 162%. As of 2004, there were 296 companies listed on the Istanbul Stock Exchange, which had a market capitalization of $98.299 billion. Trading value that year came to $147.426 billion, with a turnover ratio of 182.3%.
INSURANCE
Government regulations, effective 1929 and subsequently amended, require all insurance companies to reinsure 30% of each policy with the National Reinsurance Corp., a state organization. In 1954, life policies were exempted from this requirement. It is possible to secure insurance policies for flood damage, third-party liability, earthquake, commercial shipments, theft, fire, and accident, as well as life. Varied social security schemes are administered directly by the state. Third-party automobile liability, workers' compensation, and employers' liability are all compulsory. Workers' compensation is covered solely by the government as a part of the Social Security scheme. The insurance market is officially regulated through the Ministry of Commerce. In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $3.242 billion, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $2.672 billion. In 2003, Axa Oyak was Turkey's top nonlife insurer, with gross written premiums of $286.3 million, while the country's leading life insurer, Anadolu H. Emekilik, had gross written life insurance premiums of $226.9 million.PUBLIC FINANCE
Beginning in 1983, the fiscal year was shifted to the calendar year, starting on 1 January. (It had formerly begun on 1 March.) The consolidated budget includes the general budget of the governmentRevenue and Grants 51,324.7 100.0%
Tax revenue 43,126.5 84.0%
Social contributions … …
Grants … …
Other revenue 8,198.1 16.0%
Expenditures 81,545.9 100.0%
General public services 56,229.4 69.0%
Defense 5,456.9 6.7%
Public order and safety 3,063.7 3.8%
Economic affairs 2,569 3.2%
Environmental protection … …
Housing and community amenities 706.7 0.9%
Health 2,598.5 3.2%
Recreational, culture, and religion 557.9 0.7%
Education 5,233.7 6.4%
Social protection 5,130.2 6.3%
(…) data not available or not significant.
(By ministry) and a number of annexed budgets, which pertain to semiautonomous state activities, such as universities. Additionally, each section is divided into operating and investment expenditures. The budget is invariably in deficit. In 1994, when budget deficits led to an economic crisis with inflation peaking at 150%, the government launched an austerity program that reduced inflation but sent the economy into recession. When conditions improved, the government's commitment to austerity measures waned and expenditures again exceeded revenues. In 1999 the government initiated structural reforms under ongoing programs of standby agreements with the IMF. However, in 2000/01, banking crises, political disputes, and a rapidly growing current account deficit set the economy into a deep downturn that forced the government to adopt a floating exchange rate regime, an ambitious reform program, a tight fiscal policy, additional structural reforms, and unparalleled levels of IMF lending. By 2005, the economy was on stronger footing, with continued support from the IMF.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Turkey's central government took in revenues of approximately $93.5 billion and had expenditures of $115.3 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$21.7 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 67.5% of GDP. Total external debt was $161.8 billion.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were tl51,324.7 trillion and expenditures were tl81,545.9 trillion. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 69.0%; defense, 6.7%; public order and safety, 3.8%; economic affairs, 3.2%; housing and community amenities, 0.9%; health, 3.2%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.7%; education, 6.4%; and social protection, 6.3%.
TAXATION
All persons domiciled in Turkey, whether of Turkish citizenship or otherwise, are subject to taxation on income. Certain categories of foreigners are taxed only on income earned in Turkey, specifically, foreign business representatives, consultants, scientists, government officials, press correspondents, and others who do not intend to become permanent residents regardless of length of stay. Turkey, as of 2005, had a progressive personal income tax structure with a top rate for employment income of 30%, and a 40% rate for other types of personal income. Dividends paid to resident individuals are taxed at only 50% of the distribution. In addition, the withholding tax paid on that portion can be taken as a credit against the taxable dividend income.As of 1 January 2005, the basic corporate tax rate, was 30%. Capital gains, as of that date, were also taxed at that rate and are included in ordinary income. Dividends paid by resident corporations to other resident companies are not subject to a withholding tax. However, a 10% withholding rate may apply to those dividends if: the recipients are residents not subject to or exempt from income or corporate taxes; are nonresident corporations without a permanent representative or office in Turkey; and if the nonresident recipients are exempt from Turkish corporate and income taxes. Interest income from Turkish government treasury bills and bonds, and on loans made by foreign financial institutions are not subject to a withholding tax. Interest income derived from other sources are subject to varying withholding tax rates. Royalties paid to nonresident companies or under licenses of rights are subject to a 22% withholding rate. A higher 25% rate applies payments on the sales of rights.
A value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate of 18% applies to most transactions. However, an 8% rate is applied to basic foodstuffs, medical services, private education, books and some entertainment services. An even lower rate of 1% is applied to some immovable property, agricultural products, newspapers and used cars. In December 2001 two higher rates of 26% and 40% applied to luxury goods were abolished. Exemptions to the VAT include transactions subject to Turkey's insurance and banking transactions tax the pipeline transport of petroleum and crude oil, and the leasing of immovable property. Exports, international transport services provided abroad, and the supply of aircraft and ships are zero-rated.
Other taxes include excise taxes, stamp taxes, sales taxes consumption and property taxes, and inheritance and gift taxes. Business establishments are subject to an old age insurance tax and an illness and disability tax, shared by employers and employees.
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
Most imports are subject to the 18% VAT (with a ceiling of 26%) which is applied on the CIF (cost, insurance, freight) plus duty value. Turkey is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and aligns its customs policies with WTO regulations. Turkish customs duties are assessed on an ad valorem basis only. Present customs classification conforms to standardized international nomenclature. Duty-free entry is provided for many types of imports, such as some raw materials, imports by government agencies, and capital goods. In 1996, Turkey aligned its tariffs with the EU's common external tariff system. Importers no longer need an import license and import authorization from a bank. A government monopoly, TEKEL, controls alcohol and cigarette imports. Narcotics and weapons are strictly prohibited.FOREIGN INVESTMENT
Although Turkey has been the recipient of considerable foreign aid, its leaders have also recognized the need for private foreign investment. By 1970, foreign capital could operate in any field of economic activity open to Turkish private capital, and there was no limit on the percentage of foreign participation in equity capital. However, direct capital investment by foreign companies from 1960 to 1979 averaged no more than $20 million annually, very low by OECD standards. This changed dramatically in 1980 with new foreign investment policies that cut red tape to gain more rapid approval for investment applications; inflows of private capital increased to $97 million in 1980, $337 million in 1981, and $913 million in 1992. In 1997, foreign direct investment in Turkey totaled over $1 billion. A majority (56.8%) of this investment went into manufacturing, while 40.5% was in services, 1.6% in agriculture, and 1.1% in mining.Total Turkish direct foreign investments abroad totaled over $1.4 billion in 1997. Just over $323 million (22.2% of the total) was invested in the United Kingdom, $297.7 million in Germany, $102.2 million in the Netherlands, and $86.2 million in Russia. Other destinations for Turkish investors include Azerbaijan, Luxembourg, Romania, and Kazakhstan.
Private investment in the early 2000s was sluggish: in 2001 and 2002 total fixed investment accounted for only some 17% of GDP, with more than 30% of this carried out by the public sector. Corporate taxes are high, although the basic rate of corporate tax was due to fall from 30% to 20% in 2006. As of June 2003, there were 6,511 foreign firms invested and operating in Turkey. Over the past two decades, France has been the largest foreign investor, followed by the Netherlands, Germany, and the United States. In 2004, FDI inflow (January to November) amounted to $2.2 billion, or 1% of GDP. As of December 2004, Turkey's total external investment abroad amounted to $6.5 billion.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Economic policy is formulated by the State Planning Organization. In June 1961, an integrated 15-year plan was announced, consisting of three five-year plans designed to achieve a 7% yearly increase in national income. In March 1963, the first five-year plan was inaugurated; this 1963–68 program to some extent fell short of its goals, but its average annual increase of 6.7% in GNP was still impressive. Two objectives of the second five-year plan (1968–72) were economic viability and social justice. The role of the public sector under this program was twofold: creation and expansion of the economic and social infrastructure and development of modern manufacturing industries. Economic policy, however, still sought the largest possible active role for private enterprise in the development of industries, and the government sought with limited success to encourage private activity through fiscal concessions, financial assistance, and state participation in mixed enterprises. The third five-year plan was inaugurated in 1973 with the objective of helping Turkey prepare for its future membership in the EC. The long-term goals were to increase the per capita GNP from $400 in 1972 to $1,500 by 1995, to reduce agriculture's share of the GDP to 12%, and to increase industry's share to 37%. One of the main aims of the third five-year plan, still largely unmet, was to increase the efficiency of the tax-collection service. In agriculture, the objectives were to increase food supplies for export and to feed a growing population through improved irrigation, technical advice to farmers, and the establishment of more cooperative farms.All these efforts required large new investments and massive foreign loans which, coupled with the huge increases in the cost of oil imports after 1973, led to the financial crisis of 1977–78. Since 1980, Turkey has deliberately pursued a deflationary policy, allowing the international exchange rate of the lira to fluctuate on a daily basis from 1 May 1981. The government also delayed several ambitious development proposals, mainly because new foreign credits were not available. However, a number of smaller projects financed by the IBRD went forward. Meanwhile, the fourth (1979–83) and fifth (1985–90) five-year plans continued to stress industrial development, deflationary monetary policy, and export promotion. The creation of free trade zones, in the mid-1980s, was a major step in line with these policies.
Long-term economic programs adopted in 1991 and 1994 planned to reform social security and subsidy programs, implement tax reforms and improve tax administration, and restructure state enterprises, transferring certain inefficient ones to the private sector. By 1996, these plans had reduced the government's role in the economy, but huge budget deficits continued to plague the economy and further reforms are needed if Turkey is to solve its economic problems.
Turkey's geostrategic significance received a big boost in 1999 when its leaders, along with those of Azerbaijan, and Georgia agreed to the construction of an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea port of Baku to the Turkish Mediterranean port of Ceyhan. The first section of the 1,100-mile pipeline opened in May 2005. The $3.2 billion pipeline has a capacity of one million barrels of oil per day.
Full membership in the European Union (EU) constitutes one of Turkey's chief aims. In December 1997 Turkey was effectively removed from the EU's list of candidates for entry. As a result, Turkey suspended its relations with the EU. However, the 1997 decision was reversed at the December 1999 EU summit in Helsinki as Turkey formally became a candidate for accession in the next round of EU enlargement. Turkey's economic problems along with reservations about human rights have put a brake on early Turkish entry to the EU. Nevertheless, Turkey's status as a candidate member provides clear goals for Turkish development, and accession negotiations were opened in October 2005. With the turnaround in the Turkish economy, which, by 2005, was booming, other longstanding problems could be addressed. They include the high government debt (74.3% of GDP in 2004), inflation, unemployment, and income inequality. Turkey is working to become more globally competitive, and government policies have shifted toward liberalization. However, efforts to reduce the role of the state have been hindered by special-interest groups and political instability.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The social insurance system provides old age, disability, and death pensions for employees in industry, commerce, and the service sector. Special systems cover other workers. The benefits are funded by payroll taxes and employee contributions. Sickness and maternity benefits are also covered. Employers contribute additional funds to cover worker's injury insurance. Unemployment benefits are available for most workers, are available after 600 days of contributions in the three years before loss of work. The Social Insurance Institution provides medical services in its own hospitals and other facilities.The civil code explicitly bans sex-based privileges, yet proclaims the male as the legal head of the household. This grants the male the right to choose the place of residence, and most assets are held in the name of the husband. Women in urban areas are increasingly working outside the home. Women generally receive equal pay for equal work in the professions, but are underrepresented in managerial positions. Spousal abuse and violence are widespread. In 2004, a study showed that over 31% of women were beaten by their husbands, and 39% of women believed that men were justified in beating their wives in certain situations. Authorities hesitate to intervene in domestic matters, and violence against women goes largely unreported. Honor killings continue among some rural areas, and forced marriages are common. Reports of child abuse have increased in recent years.
Kurds are the largest ethnic minority and suffer discrimination, especially in less-industrialized areas. The government is responsible for widespread human rights abuses, including beatings, torture, and killings by security forces. Freedom of speech and of the press are limited. Human rights organizations are subject to harassment and possible closure by the authorities.
HEALTH
Free medical treatment, given at state hospitals or health centers, is provided by the state to any Turkish citizen who obtains a certificate of financial need from a local administrator. As of 2004, there were an estimated 124 physicians, 235 nurses, 23 dentists, and 33 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Approximately 83 % of the population had access to safe drinking water and 91% had adequate sanitation.Malaria, cholera, and trachoma have been effectively controlled by large-scale public preventive measures. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were tuberculosis, 73%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 79%; polio, 79%; and measles, 76%. Diarrheal disease persists, especially in children under five years of age.
As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 17.9 and 6 per 1,000 people. About 64% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception. The total fertility rate was 2.4 children for every Turkish woman who lived through her childbearing years. Average life expectancy was 72.36 years in 2005. In the same year, infant mortality was estimated at 34 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality was 130 per 100,000 live births.
The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003.
HOUSING
In 1999, major earthquakes in August and November left about 800,000 people homeless. The disasters brought to light the issues of substandard housing and illegal construction permits. The Turkish Chamber of Commerce estimated that about 65% of all buildings were built with illegal permits or below regulations, producing structures that are in no way suited to withstand the earthquakes to which Turkey is prone. International assistance has helped to rebuild and repair a number of homes. In 2000, there were about 16,235,830 dwelling units nationwide. The average household had 4.5 members. The Collective Housing Administration Directorate, founded in 1984, provides credit for residential construction projects.EDUCATION
Primary, secondary, and much of higher education is free. Education is compulsory for children ages 6 to 14 or until graduation from primary school (grade five). As of 1997, the regular school system consists of eight years of basic school and three years of secondary school. Technical, trade, and commercial schools are available at the secondary level. Some Anatolian high schools offer courses in English, French, or German in the first year and use those languages in instruction for the following years. There are also Anatolian fine arts high schools. Among private schools in operation are a number of foreign schools and those maintained by ethnic or religious minorities. The academic year runs from October to June.In 2001, about 6% of children between the ages of three and six were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 86% of age-eligible students. In 2001, secondary school enrollment was less than 76% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 95% of all students complete their primary education.
Among Turkey's 53 universities are the universities of Istanbul (founded 1453) and Ankara (founded 1946), the Technical University of Istanbul (founded 1773), and the Middle East Technical University at Ankara (founded 1957). In 2003, it was estimated that about 28% of the tertiary age population was enrolled in tertiary education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 88.3%, with 95.7% for men and 81.1% for women.
As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 3.6% of GDP.
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
The National Library in Ankara has over 960,000 volumes. There are two provincial branches of the library system as well: the Beyazit State Library in Istanbul with 500,000 volumes and the National Library of İzmir with 350,000 volumes. Major university collections include the Istanbul University and Documentation Center with 1.5 million volumes and one of the Middle East's finest rare book collections; the Middle East Technical University with 145,000 volumes, and the University of Ankara with 750,000 volumes.The most famous museums and ancient buildings are located in Istanbul. The old seraglio, now Tip-top Museum, is perhaps the most famous; it houses a large collection of paintings, manuscripts, and historically important items. Nearby is the Ayasofya (Saint Sophia), the world-renowned Byzantine church that draws thousands of tourists to Istanbul. Next to it is the Blue Mosque, famous for the beauty of its interior and the grace of its dome. Also in Istanbul are the museums of archaeology and of the ancient Orient, housing one of the world's finest collections of Greek art, including the sarcophagus of Alexander the Great. Additionally, the city is home to the Museum of Turkish written Art, the Istanbul Museum of Painting and Sculpture, and the Museum of Revolution.
The Museum of Archaeology in Ankara contains the world's outstanding collection of Hittite works. Also in Ankara are Ataturk's Mausoleum and Museum, the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, and the Museum of the Turkish Independence War and Turkish Republic. In Konya there are museums of Islamic art, one of which is housed in the mausoleum of Mevlana. Newer facilities include the decorative arts museums at the Beyler beyi and Dolmahbace palaces (both opened in Istanbul in 1984) and the Fire Brigade Museum in Fatib (1992). Along Turkey's Aegean coast are situated the ruins of Ephesus, Pergamum, Troy (Ilium), Halicarnassus, and other famous ancient cities. A zoological garden is located in Ankara.
MEDIA
Postal, telephone, and telegraph service is owned and operated by a semi-independent government enterprise under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Transport and Communications. In 2003, there were an estimated 268 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 77,200 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 394 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.The Government owns and operates the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT). In 2004, there were 226 local, 15 regional, and 16 national officially registered television stations, and 959 local, 104 regional, and 36 national radio stations. Some other television and radio stations broadcast without an official license. Foreign broadcasts are available via satellite. All broadcasts are monitored by the government through The High Board of Radio and Television. In 2003, there were an estimated 470 radios and 423 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 14.8 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 44.6 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 85 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 882 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.
In 2002, there were over 100 daily newspapers in print many of which had small local circulations. The independent leftist Cumhuriyet (1999 circulation 120,000) has been closed and reopened a number of times. Other leading Istanbul dailies (with 2002 circulation figures) are Sabah (700,000); Hurriyet(542,780); Gunaydin-Tan (386,000) and Bugun (184,880). Turkiye and Milliyet are both distributed throughout the major cities; circulation figures were unavailable in 2002.
Although the constitution guarantees freedom of expression, it also authorizes newspaper confiscations and closures in the cases of crimes against the unity, security, or republican principles of the state.
ORGANIZATIONS
Professional organizations, charitable associations, student organizations, and athletic clubs are active in the major cities. Chambers of commerce and chambers of industry are semiofficial agencies for the control of import license and foreign exchange allocations. The Union of Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Maritime Commerce and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey, established in 1952, is based in Ankara.There are several Masonic lodges and branches of the Rotary and Lions clubs. Women are active in a number of their own charitable organizations. National women's rights and development organizations include the Federation of Women's Associations, the Turkish Cypriot Association of University Women, Women for Women's Human Rights/New Ways, and the Association of Women's Rights Protection. National youth organizations include the International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, Youth for Habitat, the Youth Services Center, Junior Chamber, the Scouting and Guiding Federation of Turkey, and YMCA/YWCA. There are active sports associations promoting amateur competitions in a variety of pastimes; many such clubs are affiliated with international organizations as well as with the national Olympic Committee.
Since World War II, international cultural associations have appeared, chief among them being Turkish-American, Turkish-French, Turkish-German, and Turkish-English. The Research Center for Islamic History, Art and Culture, based in Istanbul, is multinational subsidiary organization of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey and the Turkish Academy of Sciences promote public interest, education, and research in a broad range of scientific fields. The Medical Association of Turkey also promote public health and advanced research in fields of medicine.
There are national chapters of the Red Crescent Society, UNICEF, Habitat for Humanity, and Amnesty International.
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
In addition to the museums and monuments of Istanbul, places of interest include the Aegean ports of İzmir and Bodrum; the ancient cities of Troy (Ilium), Ephesus, Tarsus, Konya, Samsun, Erzurum, and Trabzon; Mt. Ararat, traditionally considered the landing place of Noah's Ark, the remains of which some expeditions have tried to find; the ski resort of Uludag, 36 km (22 mi) south of Bursa; and the sea resort of Antalya, on the Mediterranean coast. Water sports, mountaineering, and football (soccer) are popular forms of recreation, as are such traditional Turkish sports as grease wrestling (yağli güreş), camel fighting (deve güreşi), and a horseback javelin competition (cirit oyunu) played mainly in eastern Turkey.All visitors need a valid passport as well as a visa. Citizens of the United States and Canada may get their visas at the border; other nationals must obtain their visas in advance. A vaccination against meningitis is required by all tourists, and precautions are recommended for typhoid, malaria, and hepatitis.
In 2003, about 13,341,000 tourists arrived in Turkey, of whom 41% came from Western Europe. There were 201,510 hotel rooms with 418,177 beds and a 47% occupancy rate that year.
In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Istanbul at $284; in Ankara, $278; and in other areas, $235.
FAMOUS TURKS
The most famous rulers before the coming of the Turks were Croesus (r.560–546 bc), a king of Lydia noted for his wealth and for the loss of his kingdom to the Persians; Constantine I (the Great; Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, b.Moesia, ad 280?–337), the first Roman emperor to accept Christianity and to use Constantinople as a capital; and Justinian I (the Great; Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, b. Illyricum, 483–565), a Byzantine emperor whose collection of laws and legal principles has been the model for European law down to modern times. Outstanding political figures since the arrival of the Turks include Sultan Mehmet II (1429–81), conqueror of Constantinople in 1453; Sultan Süleyman I (the Magnificent, 1495–1566); the Barbarossa brothers, Aruj (1473?–1518) and Hayreddin Paşa (Khayr ad-Din, 1466?–1546), naval commanders, born in Mytilene, who established Turkish supremacy in the Mediterranean; Mehmet Köprülü Paşa (1583–1661), Mehmet IV's grand vizier and founder of a family line of outstanding grand viziers; Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1842–1918), a despotic ruler whose tyranny led to the formation of the Young Turk movement; Enver Paşa (1881–1922), Young Turk leader who was the ruler of Turkey during World War I; Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938), World War I military commander, nationalist leader, and first president of the republic; Ismet Inönü (Paşa, 1884–1973), Atatürk's chief of staff and prime minister, who succeeded him as president (1938–50) and was the first prime minister of the Second Republic (1961–65); Celâl Bayar (1883–1986), who helped found the Democrat Party and was president (1950–60) until ousted by the military; and Adnan Menderes (1899–1961), prime minister (1950–60) until he was forced to resign and then executed. Outstanding religious figures include Haci Bektaş Veli (1242–1337), founder of the Bektashi dervishes, and Mevlana (Celâleddin-i Rumi or Jalal al-Din Rumi, 1207–73), author of the epic Mesnevi (or Mathnavi ) and founder of the Mevlevi dervishes.Revered literary figures include the mystical poets Yunus Emre (1238?–1320?) and Süleyman Çelebi (d.1422), author of Mevlidi Sherif (Birth Song of the Prophet ). Other significant poets of the imperial epoch are Ahmedi (1334–1413), Şeyhi (d.1429?); Fuzulî (1494–1555), renowned for his lyrical verses about platonic love; Ali Şir Nevâí (1441–1501); Nef 'î (1582?–1636); Nabî (1642?–1712); Ahmet Nedim (1681–1730), perhaps Ottoman Turkey's greatest love poet; and Şeyh Galib (1757–98), the last great poet of the mystical and classical tradition. Renowned for his geographical and historical writings is Kâtip Çelebi (known in Europe as Haji Khalifa, 1609–57); the great traveler Evliya Çelebi (1611–82) is noted for his books on travel and history. The greatest folk poet was the 17th-century minstrel Karacaoglan.
Sinasi (1826–71), a dramatist, journalist, and essayist, was the first Turkish writer in the Western tradition. Other significant playwrights are Musaipzade Celal (1870–1959), Haldun Taner (1916–86), and Necati Cumali (1921–2001). The poet Ziya Paşa (1825–80) was the outstanding literary figure of the reform period. Namik Kemal (Ahmed Kemal, 1840–88) and Mehmet Emin Yurdakul (1869–1944) dedicated their poetry to the achievement of political ideals. Four widely read novelists are Huseyin Rahmi Gurpinar (1864–1944), Ahmet Rasim (1864–1932), Halit Ziya Usakligil (1865–1945), and Mehmet Rauf (1871–1931). Omer Seyfettin (1884–1920) was a major short-story writer. Ziya Gökalp (1875–1924) was a noted poet and sociologist. Significant contemporary novelists include Halide Edib Adivar (1884–1966), Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu (1888–1974), Refik Halit Karay (1888–1974), Reşat Nuri Güntekin (1892–1957), Kemal Tahir Demir (1910–74), Orhan Kemal (1914–70), and Yasar Kemal Gokceli (b.1922). Two fine modern poets were Yahya Kemal Beyatli (1884–1958) and Nazim Hikmet Ran (1901–60). Two prominent journalists and political writers were Hüseyin Çahit Yalçin (1875–1957) and Ahmet Emin Yalman (1889–1973). Outstanding historians were Naima (1752–1815), Mehmet Fuat Köprülü (1890–1966), and Ahmet Zekî Velidî Togan (1890–1970).
Other famous Turks include the architect Sinan (1490–1588), the miniaturist Abducelil Celebi Levni (d.1732), and the modern painter Bedri Rahmi Eyuboglu (1913–75). Famous contemporary composers include Ulvi Cemal Erkin (1906–72) and Ahmet Adnan Saygun (1907–93). The operatic soprano Suna Korad (1935–2003) and bass-baritone Ayhan Baran (b.1929) have won renown in European musical circles.
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